Can Akcaoğlu — Center for Iranian Studies (İRAM) — April 14, 2021
A scholarly work in the field of sociology, The Position of Turkish Nationalism in Iran: The Traxtor Revolt is author İbrahim Ramazânî’s only published book. Ramazânî, himself a sociologist, combines academic analysis with field observations and interviews to examine how the nationalist tendencies of Iran’s Turks have found expression through the Traxtor football club.
Traxtor (Persian: تیراختور; also rendered as Tractor Sazi, Tractor, Traktör, and Tıraxtur), from which the book takes its title, is a football club founded in Tabriz in 1970. It has competed in the highest division of Iranian football since 2009. The club is supported by Turks throughout Iran, particularly in Tabriz, and is estimated to have approximately 35 million supporters. Mustafa Denizli, one of Türkiye’s most experienced football managers, also managed the club for approximately six months in 2019. Traxtor has twice won Iran’s official national cup competition, the Hazfi Cup, in the 2013–2014 and 2019–2020 seasons, but has not yet won the national league championship.
At the beginning of the book, in the “Preface” and “Introduction,” Ramazânî discusses the contemporary state of football and acquaints readers with the questions underpinning his study. He defines the scope of the research through questions concerning Traxtor’s influence on the formation of national identity among Iran’s Turks and—according to the author—its unifying role in opposition to Iran’s policies of assimilation and discrimination. The author also introduces and categorizes the individuals from whom he obtained his data.
In the book’s first chapter, titled “A Conceptual Perspective,” Ramazânî examines the relevant terms, concepts, and phenomena from the perspective of the sociological literature. Identity is considered within sociological and psychological frameworks, while national identity and the elements that constitute it are presented to the reader through a comparison of different approaches and definitions. The discussion is broadened through an examination of subjects such as ethnic identity and different forms of nationalism.
Ramazânî explains what he means by the term “Turkish nationalism” in the book’s title through an examination of Turkish identity, stating that his use of “Turk” does not invoke ethnic or religious divisions. Discussing nationalism from the past to the present, he emphasizes consciousness of nationhood, shared culture and sentiments, and, within this framework, the mother tongue. By addressing assimilation, minority and majority relations, and ethnicity, the author presents the discourse that Turks are excluded in Iran and explains the intellectual foundations of their nationalist orientations.
Within this discussion, “us” and “the Other” emerge as prominent concepts. The author argues that Iran has sought to construct a collective “us” through Shiʿism, whereas Turks, excluded on linguistic and cultural grounds, have constructed their sense of collective belonging around language. This chapter also explains how different sociological theories approach sport and football.
The book’s second chapter, titled “An Overview of the Islamic Republic of Iran,” provides geographical and demographic information about the country. Alongside data compiled from Iran’s official sources, the demographic discussion offers information about the various ethnic groups living in Iran. The chapter identifies groups including Persians, Turks, Kurds, Arabs, Turkmens, Lurs, and Baluch and cites studies estimating the Turkish population at between 14 and 35 million out of a total population of approximately 80 million. It also presents research estimating that Turkish speakers constitute approximately 18 to 24 percent of the population.
The author supplements this chapter with maps showing the areas in which Turks are concentrated. Using sociological criteria, he also discusses Iran’s political history and system of government, Turks’ perceptions of identity, and the assimilationist practices to which they have been subjected. He traces the emergence of Turks’ search for identity to the 1940s.
The book’s third chapter, titled “The Reactions of Iran’s Turks to Assimilation and a Historical Perspective on Turkish Identity,” recounts several events involving Turks from the past to the present. In chronological order, these include the Khiyabani Uprising (1920), the National Government (1945–1946), the Iranian Islamic Revolution (1979), the 1996 parliamentary elections, Babak Castle (2000), the Cartoon Controversy (2006), and Traxtor’s promotion to Iran’s highest football league in 2009.
The Khiyabani Uprising was initiated by advocates of democratic reform under the leadership of Mohammad Khiyabani. It led to the establishment of the Azadistan government, based in Tabriz, which existed from April to September 1920.
During the Second World War, the occupation of Iran by the Soviet Union and the United Kingdom created a political vacuum and weakened centralized state authority. Furthermore, the oppression experienced by Iran’s Turks strengthened nationalist currents and led to the establishment of the National Government of South Azerbaijan. The National Government, which operated between 1945 and 1946 and implemented numerous reforms during that period, came to an end after Iran overcame the occupation. In recounting this period, Ramazânî argues that the government took important steps toward the development of Turkish nationalism. According to the author, alongside developing a social-welfare model of government, it also undertook initiatives to establish Turkish-language education.
Ramazânî examines the 1979 Islamic Revolution from a different perspective by discussing political organizations established during that period on the basis of ethnic identity. In this context, he considers the Muslim People’s Republican Party, which appealed to numerous ethnic groups but found its strongest support among Turks, and the Muslim People’s Party, founded under the leadership of Ayatollah Shariatmadari. The author states that these parties called for the recognition of the “Azerbaijani national language and culture,” Turkish-language education, the establishment of Turkish-language mass media, and autonomy from the central government in Tehran based on several administrative demands. Subsequently, Shariatmadari’s home in Qom was raided. When a popular uprising erupted in Tabriz in response, Shariatmadari, recognizing that it could result in bloodshed, called for an end to the uprising.
The author also discusses the academic Mahmoudali Chehregani, who ran in the 1996 parliamentary elections and attracted considerable interest among young people in Tabriz. Chehregani reportedly received approximately 600,000 votes, but the Iranian authorities prevented him from taking office. This prompted protests, during which hundreds of Turks were arrested.
The chapter also examines Babak, who led a resistance movement against the Abbasids in the ninth century, and Babak Castle, which today hosts annual marches and cultural activities involving Turks during a particular period of the year. Initially emerging as student-led events, these activities subsequently developed into a broader social movement. The Iranian government, however, strongly opposed participation in them. According to the author, the events held at Babak Castle may be understood as a form of Turkish nationalism centred on Azerbaijani-Turkish identity. Both Babak and the castle have also become symbols of anti-occupation resistance and national liberation within the historical memory of Azerbaijani-Turkish identity.
This chapter further discusses the protests known as the Cartoon Controversy, which followed the publication on May 12, 2006, of a cartoon in a state-owned newspaper depicting Turks as cockroaches. The reaction to the cartoon began primarily in Tabriz and spread across the country. The author reports that at least 50 demonstrators were killed and hundreds more injured when police opened fire on protesters.
Ramazânî regards Traxtor’s promotion to Iran’s highest football league in 2009 as a turning point in the identity struggle of Iran’s Turks. During the 2009–2010 season, Traxtor supporters broke the league’s attendance record, filling the stands both in Tabriz and in other cities where their team played. They regard the Tehran-based clubs Esteghlal and Persepolis as their principal rivals. According to the author, this rivalry stems from those clubs’ proximity to the Iranian establishment.
In Iran, where women were prohibited from entering stadiums, Traxtor was nevertheless able to fill its stadium for many matches with male supporters alone. Female supporters who were barred from entering found an alternative by watching matches from the hills surrounding the stadium. After some time, however, soldiers were stationed on these hills to prevent them from doing so.
The book’s fourth chapter is titled “The South Azerbaijan National Movement and the Traxtor Football Team.” It discusses the history of football and examines how football clubs in different regions have come to embody particular identities. Characteristics such as occupation, ethnic background, and religious denomination have become associated with certain teams, whose supporters regard these clubs as expressions of their identities.
Within this framework, Ramazânî connects football, identity, and nationalism, arguing that football allows supporters to articulate what they cannot express within political or economic arenas controlled by those in power. This indirectly produces a supporter identity and satisfies an individual’s desire to belong to a group. In Traxtor’s case, however, supporter identity extends far beyond ordinary football fandom. The author emphasizes that the chants voiced by Traxtor supporters during matches are generally not directed toward the team itself but concern the national values of South Azerbaijan. In this sense, the stadium may be understood as a space in which the unsayable can be spoken.
A widespread view holds that football—or other forms of popular entertainment—serves as an instrument for sedating or distracting societies. The author offers a different interpretation, arguing that although football may be used to blind the masses during periods of repression, it can also enable opposition groups to emerge from underground, enter public life, and broaden their movements through mobilization and propaganda. In this context, the stadium becomes a space in which aspirations for social freedom are expressed.
The politicization of expressions in the stands has also generated various conflicts. In response to Traxtor supporters’ chants in support of Azerbaijan, supporters of opposing teams have reportedly displayed the Armenian flag. Traxtor supporters have also chanted against the Iranian Parliament to draw attention to the drying of Lake Urmia, which they attribute to dam construction.
The book’s fifth chapter, titled “Data Analysis and Conclusion,” describes the characteristics of the interview participants. Drawing on these interviews, Ramazânî demonstrates the supporters’ attachment to the club. One notable point emerging from the supporters’ testimonies is that they generally explain their reasons for rallying around Traxtor by identifying it as a Turkish team. Some became Traxtor supporters because of their opposition to Persians and equated supporting the club with Turkish nationalism. One supporter stated that what truly mattered was language and territory, while winning or losing the match was of secondary importance. In this context, the author argues that Traxtor has become a school of nationalism.
The book concludes with three appendices. Appendix 1 contains the questions Ramazânî asked his interview participants. Appendix 2 presents chants performed by Traxtor supporters in stadiums. Alongside conventional chants intended to support and motivate the team, it includes numerous chants with political or protest-oriented content. Appendix 3 contains photographs, most of which depict the stands of Sahand Stadium, Traxtor’s home ground.
The book addresses the problems experienced by Iran’s Turks from the past to the present and examines their manifestations through the perspectives of the Traxtor football club and its supporters. It may be regarded as a useful study for developing a clearer understanding of the reactions of the country’s Turkish population within the prevailing social and political environment. The author’s presentation of the research from an academic perspective and his grounding of the analysis in theoretical frameworks also demonstrate the care devoted to the study. The book offers an informative resource for readers interested in Iranian society, Iran’s Turks, football, and supporter culture.
For further information on this subject, see “Babak and the Commemoration Ceremonies for Babak among Iran’s Turks”.