By Saeed Shahverdi, Milad Balisini - Radio Zamaneh - July 2, 2021
Mismanagement of water resources and climate change driven by global warming have led to a widespread water crisis in Iran. Reforming water consumption patterns in agriculture is one of the critical issues for addressing this crisis. Various experts and Iranian policymakers have proposed solutions ranging from banning the cultivation of certain crops like rice or watermelon to adopting optimized irrigation methods and modern agricultural technologies. The authors of this article explore the benefits of greenhouse cultivation for ensuring Iran’s water and food security in the face of this crisis and highlight the shortcomings of existing discriminatory policies. "Zamaneh" also invites other experts to contribute to this discussion and present solutions for tackling the water crisis and other current climate-related challenges in Iran.
Agriculture is one of the three main sectors of the economy and plays a crucial role in providing food, societal well-being, gross national product, and economic growth. Due to its extensive connections with other economic sectors, growth in agriculture can drive wealth creation, market expansion, foreign exchange generation, and the development of industrial and service sectors.
According to data from Iran’s Statistics Center, 17.6% of all employed individuals in Iran were engaged in the agricultural sector in 2017, and this figure rose to 17.7% in 2019. Globally, the World Bank reported that 26.5% of the workforce was employed in agriculture in 2016 (Iran Statistics Center, 2017).
However, persistent droughts in recent decades and the excessive use of water resources in agriculture to meet domestic demands, coupled with agricultural exports for earning foreign exchange during oil export shortfalls due to sanctions, have prompted Iranian policymakers to consider changing cultivation patterns and increasing soil and water efficiency. According to annual reports by Iran's Ministry of Agriculture, approximately 1.2 million hectares of agricultural land were lost between the 2004-2005 and 2017-2018 agricultural years, primarily due to recent decades of drought. In addition to drought and water scarcity, natural disasters and the lack of market access are other challenges plaguing Iran’s agricultural system, further motivating shifts in cultivation patterns and improved soil and water utilization.
Greenhouse cultivation has gained attention in recent years as a strategy to address drought and increase water and soil efficiency in Iran. Despite the widespread drought affecting most of the country's lands and the pressing need for efficient use of water and soil nationwide, macro-level policies in this area reveal a disproportionate focus on central provinces. Peripheral provinces and population centers have received significantly less attention.
This neglect is evident in both strategic documents and investments. For instance, the Central Organization of Rural Cooperatives of Iran (CORC) stated in a booklet titled "Greenhouse Cultivation: A Choice or a Strategy," published in 2016, that:
"The Central Organization of Rural Cooperatives, in alignment with the overarching policies of the Ministry, has exerted its utmost effort to establish, accelerate, and enhance activities—particularly in creating, developing, and equipping greenhouses and increasing their production within the network of affiliated unions and cooperatives, especially in dry, semi-arid, and water-scarce provinces in the central, southern, and eastern regions of the country."
Drought and Water Scarcity as Preconditions for Changing Cultivation Patterns in Iran
The latest assessment by the World Resources Institute (WRI) indicates that Iran, along with Qatar, Israel, and Lebanon, is among the countries facing an "exceptional water crisis" and is nearing "Day Zero," the point at which water resources may be completely depleted. The institute’s Aqueduct Water Risk Atlas places Iran fourth on the list of countries closest to Day Zero.
Seventeen countries, including Iran, which collectively account for one-quarter of the global population, have been classified by WRI as experiencing the worst drought and water scarcity conditions.
Researchers at WRI suggest that investing in water resource management can alleviate these challenges. According to the institute, there are "three accessible solutions" to address issues arising from the water crisis:
- Improving agricultural productivity—for example, using crops that require less water and advancing agricultural technologies.
- Investing in "gray" infrastructure—such as proper pipelines, and "green" infrastructure—like wetlands or healthy watersheds, which can address both water scarcity and pollution issues.
- Adopting a mindset of reuse and water recycling. The idea that used water cannot be recycled should be abandoned. With proper handling, water can be reused, effectively creating "new" water resources.
Agriculture is a major factor contributing to Iran’s water crisis. The current inefficient agricultural system not only has very low productivity in terms of water and soil usage but also yields minimal output. As Kaveh Madani explains in his article, "Water Management in Iran: What Has Led to the Extensive Crisis?":
"The oil-dependent economy is one of the factors undermining the economic productivity of the agricultural sector, reducing its share of GDP to 13%, while it consumes over 90% of the country's water resources. Moreover, the continuation of the current management approach will further diminish the economic productivity of agriculture, severely impacting the economic and livelihood conditions of farmers."
This extensive consumption of the country's freshwater in agriculture is supplied through dams, drainage systems, and wells (both legal and illegal).
The number of agricultural wells is so high that, according to some experts, there is one well for every two square kilometers of land in Iran. These illegal wells are often drilled by individuals, organizations, and institutions with significant influence. Despite the high number of these wells, no one has the authority to take action against those responsible due to their power and connections. Another reason for not sealing illegal wells is the employment crisis in the country, as many jobs are directly tied to water resources.
In addition to wells, dams and the overall dam-building industry in Iran present a similar issue. Although officials justify dam construction as a means of water storage, flood control, and more, the reality has been a waste of resources—essentially a source of profit for a select few—and environmental destruction.
Dam construction began at full speed after the Iran-Iraq war and during Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani’s presidency, continuing without pause for the past 30 years. According to a list published on the website of the Iran Water Resources Management Company, there are currently 647 small and large dams in operation in Iran, with 683 more in the planning or execution stages.
In other words, dam construction is considered a major economic project that, whether it contributes positively to water resource optimization or destructively to the drying of wetlands and lakes, remains a “money-maker” and a sustainable source of income for its proponents. The profitability of dam construction begins long before the execution phase with geological and feasibility studies and continues perpetually through activities such as dredging, maintenance, and safeguarding.
The escalating drought and water scarcity crisis each year indicate that the construction of many dams serves more as a revenue generator for hundreds of companies tied to centers of power than as a tool for water resource management. This approach ultimately brings about irreversible consequences.
For example, within the Lake Urmia watershed, 79 dams (in various stages of study, operation, and construction) have been built without considering the lake's water rights in their design and implementation. According to a study published in the journal Agricultural Water Management, "The area of irrigated land in the Lake Urmia basin has increased by 437% over the past decades," representing an "inefficient" agricultural expansion rooted in uncontrolled dam construction.
Beyond these issues, the highly profitable dam construction industry not only devastates the environment and burdens farmers with inefficient and unproductive agriculture but occasionally disrupts demographic balance and causes disasters in populated areas. The Gotvand Dam is a clear example of this national tragedy in Iran.
The Gotvand Dam, located 10 kilometers northeast of the city of the same name in Khuzestan Province, is one of the largest dams constructed on the Karun River. Its construction began in 1997, and it was inaugurated in 2011. As the tallest earth-filled dam in Iran, its reservoir is the second-largest artificial lake in the country after Karkheh. With a 90-kilometer-long reservoir and a storage capacity of 5 billion cubic meters, it has the highest water storage volume in the lower Karun River basin. The cost of constructing the Gotvand Dam, built through the collaboration of the Ministry of Energy, the Iran Water and Power Development Company, Mahab Ghods, and the Khatam al-Anbia Construction Headquarters, was not supposed to exceed 800 billion tomans (at a time when the dollar was worth approximately 500 tomans). However, its final cost exceeded $3 billion.
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| The filling of the Gotvand Dam and the rising water level of its reservoir have so far displaced the residents of 41 villages. The dam was constructed by Khatam-al Anbiya. Photo: Mojtaba Ghahestouni |
Neglecting the environmental characteristics of the Gotvand Dam construction site and the proximity of its reservoir to the salt formations of the Gachsaran geological strata have, over the years, led to the salinization of the water stored behind the dam and further pollution of the Karun River. The primary cause of this environmental disaster is the construction of the Gotvand Dam in an area with salt domes and veins at the reservoir site. Essentially, the dam's builders failed to consider the region's geological studies. Consequently, millions of tons of salt have entered the Karun River, and millions more have dissolved into its water. As a result, the areas surrounding Gotvand, including fertile agricultural lands, are turning into salt flats due to the spread of salinity and evaporation. People are losing all their assets, and the dam's saline water is rendered useless.
In addition to these challenges, drought plays a significant role in Iran's water crisis and highlights the need for a change in agricultural practices.
According to the latest statistics presented by the head of the Water Research Institute at the Ministry of Energy, the spatial and basin-level drought conditions in Iran were analyzed until mid-summer 2020. Estimates indicate that the central plateau and eastern border areas remain among the driest regions in Iran. Rainfall distribution across the country is neither uniform nor adequate; as one moves from western to eastern areas and from northern to southern regions, rainfall decreases. Despite being the driest parts of the country, these areas have the most extensive agricultural land under cultivation, greenhouse production, water-intensive crop farming, and even industrial production.
Greenhouses: Types and Advantages of Greenhouse Cultivation
A greenhouse is a structure with a transparent, light-permeable covering that enables optimal agricultural and horticultural production by controlling key factors such as light, temperature, humidity, and carbon dioxide. Greenhouses protect crops from adverse environmental conditions and ensure favorable growth conditions.
Greenhouse cultivation involves growing horticultural products in protected environments, helping improve cultivation conditions and safeguard crops against pests, diseases, and climate changes. It can be implemented in various enclosed spaces such as greenhouses, glass rooms, or shaded structures. Controlled-environment agriculture represents the most modern and efficient form of greenhouse cultivation, combining greenhouse technology with soil-less farming to better manage pests and diseases.
Greenhouse Cultivation: A Step Toward Agricultural Reform
High Yields:
One major advantage of greenhouse cultivation is higher crop yields, offering commercial benefits. The controlled environment ensures optimal growth conditions, resulting in robust plants and marketable produce at competitive prices.
Safe Cultivation:
Greenhouses help mitigate challenges such as extreme heatwaves or droughts, which often stress crops. While nature is unpredictable, greenhouse conditions can be precisely regulated.
Greenhouse farming, due to its favorable environmental conditions, delivers up to 10 times higher yields per unit area compared to open-field farming. For example, a square meter of greenhouse space can produce 20 kilograms of cucumbers, compared to just 2 kilograms in open fields.
Multi-Crop Production:
Greenhouses enable multiple harvests in a year. For instance, cucumbers can be grown three times annually, while tomatoes can be cultivated twice a year.
Significant Water Savings:
Greenhouse farming drastically reduces water waste due to its closed environment. Mechanized irrigation methods like boom irrigation and drip tapes minimize water consumption. For example, producing one kilogram of lettuce requires about 150 liters of water in open fields, whereas in a greenhouse, it needs only 9 liters.
Soilless Cultivation (Hydroponics):
Hydroponics, or soilless cultivation, is a method of growing plants in water enriched with nutrients, eliminating soil use. In this technique, plants are supported in inert growing mediums such as perlite, rock wool, clay pellets, peat, or vermiculite, while their roots are exposed to nutrient-rich solutions. Hydroponics allows roots direct access to oxygen and nutrients, significantly enhancing the quality and efficiency of crop production.
The benefits of the hydroponic method include the following:
- Elimination of extensive soil use.
- Avoidance of pesticides and chemicals, which increase production costs and pollute the soil.
- A preferred method for producing genetically modified crops.
- Elimination of weeds in agricultural production.
- Significant reduction in water usage, particularly in areas facing water scarcity.
- Enhanced nutritional value of hydroponic produce compared to traditional methods.
- The ability to grow fruits and vegetables in cold and marshy regions.
- Revitalization of underdeveloped and abandoned areas for greenhouse establishment (Dutch method).
- Sequential cultivation of forage plants for small livestock farms.
- Reduced vulnerability of plants to organic and parasitic diseases.
- Substantial reduction in labor requirements and overhead costs for agricultural production.
As evident from the advantages of the hydroponic method, it offers more benefits compared to soil-based greenhouse cultivation. However, since no specific statistics have been provided by the Ministry of Agriculture regarding the extent of hydroponic greenhouses, it is not possible to comment on their distribution or scope across central and peripheral regions of Iran.
It is worth noting that the Soil-less Cultivation Research Center in Iran is based at Isfahan University of Technology. Additionally, out of 10 training workshops organized by this association, 3 were held in the city of Mahallat (located in Markazi Province, a hub for ornamental flower production in Iran) and 7 were conducted at Isfahan University of Technology. Furthermore, of the six National Congresses on Hydroponic Cultivation and Greenhouse Production held by the Soil-less Cultivation Research Center, the venues for these congresses from the first to the sixth were in the following provinces: Isfahan (city of Isfahan), Markazi (city of Mahallat), Alborz (city of Karaj), Kerman (city of Rafsanjan), Fars (city of Shiraz), and Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari (city of Shahr-e Kord).
The locations of the training workshops and national congresses (with the exception of the sixth congress held in Shahr-e Kord) reflect the government's support for soil-less cultivation in central regions.
One example of government support for hydroponic cultivation in central regions is noteworthy. In 2014, a memorandum was signed for the construction of 1,000 hectares of modern hydroponic greenhouses in Kerman with an investment of 2,600 billion tomans in partnership with France, Belgium, the Netherlands, and China. For this purpose, the Urban Development Organization established 500 two-hectare units and identified 500 farmers in the province for the project. Necessary coordination was also carried out with the Agricultural Bank, and only lands with ownership deeds and wells with proper licenses and quality were utilized.
In this modern project, the farmers’ contribution was limited to providing land and water. After repaying bank installments, the ownership of the structures built was returned to the farmers. Additionally, the income after repayment was divided as 70% for the farmers and 30% for the organization.
Greenhouse Cultivation Area and Production in Central and Peripheral Regions of Iran (2013–2019)
The following charts [2], based on data from the statistical yearbooks of the Ministry of Agriculture, present calculations regarding greenhouse cultivation and production during this period.
Drag and Drop
As observed in the charts, the central provinces hold the largest share of greenhouse cultivation area and production in Iran. According to these charts, the central provinces accounted for the highest share of greenhouse cultivation area and production statistics from 2013 to 2019.
On average, five provinces—Tehran, Kerman, Isfahan, Yazd, and Markazi—constituted 74.36% of the total greenhouse cultivation area and produced 79% of greenhouse products during this period. In contrast, eight peripheral provinces—West Azerbaijan, Zanjan, Lorestan, Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari, Ardabil, Kurdistan, Golestan, and Ilam—accounted for only 1.1% of the total greenhouse cultivation area and 1.2% of the greenhouse products during the same period on average. Furthermore, as seen in the cumulative production statistics (Chart No. 5), cumulative growth (Chart No. 6), and cultivation area growth (Chart No. 7), the central provinces rank at the top, while the peripheral provinces occupy the bottom.
This dominance in greenhouse cultivation area and production volume is not the result of the ingenuity of farmers in the central provinces. Instead, it is a product of unparalleled government support. In numerous strategic documents and officials’ speeches, there has been repeated emphasis on changing cultivation patterns to improve water and soil productivity in the central provinces. The government has provided low-interest loans and, in many cases, covered part of the farmers’ expenses.
For instance, Mohammad Ali Tahmasbi, then Deputy Minister of Agriculture for Horticulture, stated during the launch of the largest hydroponic greenhouse project in Mahan, Kerman, in May 2016:
"Given the water crisis, increasing the efficiency of greenhouses has been designated as a national agenda under the government's plans. During the Sixth and Seventh Development Programs, about 40,000 to 50,000 hectares will be added to the country's greenhouse areas, primarily in warm regions, focusing on vegetables and fruits. In this regard, horticulture management departments of provincial agricultural organizations, the Agricultural Engineering Organization, and the Agricultural Bank as the main financier will oversee the establishment of greenhouses."
In another example of government support for farmers in central regions, Mohammad Hossein Malanouri, Deputy for Plant Production Improvement at the Agricultural Jihad Organization of Yazd, announced in March 2020 the provision of low-interest loans for greenhouse cultivation in Yazd. He stated that the goal of creating greenhouse complexes and industrial clusters was to establish production chains and enhance export growth to international markets. The Deputy noted that in 2019, 60%, equivalent to 42,000 tons of greenhouse products, were exported to Russia, Iraq, and the Persian Gulf markets. Additionally, according to Seyed Jamal Sajadi, head of Yazd’s Agricultural Jihad Organization, greenhouse production in the province increased by 200,000 tons between 2013 and 2020 with government support and the participation of beneficiaries. This scale of cultivation has created direct employment for more than 16,000 people, with over 70% of greenhouse products exported abroad.
At the same time, provinces with the highest greenhouse cultivation and production are also leaders in other areas such as industry, employment, and development.
For example, Tehran is not only the capital of Iran but also its central hub. Over the past century, Tehran has increasingly become the focal point of Iran’s development in all dimensions. This centralization began with political consolidation and gradually encompassed every aspect of governance. Most development plans and actions have been designed to benefit Tehran, giving them legal and executive weight. Ultimately, development either occurred in Tehran or was decided for other regions from Tehran.
In greenhouse cultivation, Tehran has received considerable support as well. As demonstrated in the charts, Tehran holds the largest share of greenhouse cultivation and production, with the average yield of greenhouse products in Tehran being three times the national average.
Alongside Tehran and Yazd, Isfahan is another highly developed region with a unique position in greenhouse cultivation and production. As Ahmad Reza Reisi Zadeh, the then-Director of Horticulture Affairs for Isfahan's Agricultural Jihad Organization, stated in February 2019:
"50% of the 300,000 tons of greenhouse products from this province are exported to neighboring countries. These include bell peppers, eggplants, tomatoes, cucumbers, and leafy greens, exported to the Persian Gulf countries, Russia, Qatar, Central Asia, the Caucasus, and the Emirates, as well as neighboring provinces. Furthermore, this activity has created direct employment for more than 17,000 people and indirect opportunities for many others."
Similarly, Kerman ranked second in greenhouse cultivation area and third in production on average from 2013 to 2019. In this regard, Dr. Saeed Barkhori, then-President of the Southern Kerman Agricultural Jihad Organization, announced in December 2020 the export of 500,000 to 700,000 tons of greenhouse products from Southern Kerman. According to him, agricultural products from Southern Kerman are exported to countries such as Russia, Central Asia, the Persian Gulf, Iraq, and Afghanistan.
In addition to the job creation and capital accumulation associated with greenhouse production in central regions, the export paths for these products are also noteworthy.
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| Greenhouse cultivation in Gonabad — Photo: ILNA |
It is evident that provinces such as Kerman, Yazd, and Isfahan, along with other central regions of Iran, are significantly farther from the mentioned export destinations. For example, provinces like Khuzestan, Ilam, Kermanshah, Kurdistan, and West Azerbaijan, which share borders with Iraq, could be selected for greenhouse farming. This would not only speed up the transportation of goods and reduce costs and wear-and-tear but also allow the peripheral provinces’ residents to benefit from such exports.
Valiollah Bani Ameri, the then-national greenhouse project manager, stated at the 4th International Green Iran Exhibition in April 2019 about greenhouse product exports:
"In 2018, the export value of greenhouse products reached $500 million, more than doubling compared to $150 million in 2017. The total agricultural exports amounted to $5.4 billion, of which horticulture accounted for 50%. Of this amount, less than $1 billion related to greenhouse and vegetable product exports."
While the capital accumulation in central regions represents one facet of this disparity, the advantages of greenhouse farming—such as safe cultivation, water conservation, etc.—constitute another. These benefits, supported by the government, are concentrated in central Iran. In contrast, in peripheral areas, farmers are often left on their own, uninformed, and unsupported by the government. This neglect leads to over-farming beyond environmental capacities, resulting in environmental degradation and threats to human livelihoods. For instance, Hamadan is one of the provinces facing land subsidence due to excessive groundwater extraction for vegetable farming.
Another example of resource mismanagement in peripheral regions is rice cultivation, which has recently become a source of limited income for a small number of farmers in Mianeh County (in East Azerbaijan). According to the latest statistics, about 5,000 hectares of irrigated farmland in Mianeh are used for rice cultivation, with approximately four tons harvested per hectare.
Despite the limited water resources in the region, producing one kilogram of rice requires about 8,000 liters of water, mainly sourced from seasonal rivers, upstream dams, wells, and, in some cases, even wastewater. According to Jalal Rahimzadeh, the then-director of Mianeh's Agriculture Department, the total annual water consumption for rice cultivation in the county is 37.8 million cubic meters, with each hectare consuming 9,000 cubic meters. Before 2013, rice was primarily cultivated in two villages—Maman and Gondoghdou—each with its native rice varieties. The county's native crops were traditionally brooms and vegetables, which consumed far less water than rice. However, rice has gradually replaced these crops in some areas.
It is clear that one of the duties of the Ministry of Agriculture is conducting research and transferring the latest technical knowledge to farmers. Agriculture in any region should be based on its environmental conditions and potential. However, instances like rice farming in Mianeh highlight the lack of oversight, leaving farmers unaware of the consequences of excessive water use, leading to the irreversible depletion of surface and groundwater resources. Notably, the local authorities have not entirely abandoned Mianeh’s rice farmers; the Irrigation Department charges one million tomans per hectare for water use. Moreover, it even permits rice cultivation along riverbanks in exchange for a set fee.
Aside from neglecting farmers in peripheral regions regarding water misuse and environmental degradation, it is notable that their agricultural products, unlike the massive exports from central areas, often fail to bring economic benefits to the farmers or their regions. In some cases, the lack of proper markets forces farmers to discard crops like tomatoes to livestock, as happened in Urmia in October 2019. In such cases, officials have blamed farmers for these issues. The deputy director of the Agriculture Organization of West Azerbaijan labeled farmers as "the main culprits" in the surplus tomato crisis. This is despite the fact that the Agriculture Organization is responsible for providing inputs and overseeing planting, cultivation, and harvesting, while the Ministry of Industry, Mining, and Trade should regulate the market. In reality, neither of these entities fulfills their responsibilities effectively.
Moreover, the absence of processing industries to handle agricultural products in peripheral areas leads to raw material exports to processing factories in central regions, where the products are refined, processed, and sold for significant profits. This imposes yet another layer of discrimination on peripheral residents.
For instance, potatoes are a major agricultural product in Ardabil Province, with around 800,000 tons harvested annually. However, due to a lack of processing industries, this valuable product is sold as a raw commodity with minimal added value. Potato farming in Ardabil involves around 12,000 farmers, producing 18% of the province’s total agricultural output and 15-20% of the nation’s potato supply, making Ardabil a critical hub for potato production. Currently, it ranks as the second-largest potato-producing province in Iran.
Neither exports nor modern storage facilities, proposed as solutions by some experts, have proven to be effective in addressing these issues in the long run. Instead, they exacerbate raw material exports, enabling central provinces and other countries to reap the economic benefits while peripheral regions suffer the consequences.
Given Ardabil Province's need to address unemployment, create jobs, and make optimal use of its agricultural products by adding significant value, implementing modern initiatives such as establishing potato processing industries in the province is essential. These could include factories for producing chips, mashed potatoes, frozen fries, potato powder, breaded products, and more.
However, the lack of processing industries in Ardabil has placed the province at a significant disadvantage. Despite being a hub for potato production, provinces like Razavi Khorasan, particularly the city of Mashhad, host the largest processing industries in the country. As a result, the added value of farmers' hard work in peripheral regions flows to these central areas.
Not only does the government fail to support peripheral regions, but it also uses its resources to further develop central areas. One clear example is the Beheshtabad Water Transfer Project.
The Beheshtabad project involves transferring water from Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari Province to the provinces of Isfahan, Yazd, and Kerman. The irrational and environmentally harmful establishment of major industries such as the Isfahan Steel Mill, Isfahan Refinery, and Mobarakeh Steel Company near the river in Isfahan Province has resulted in excessive water consumption. Additionally, the cultivation of water-intensive crops such as rice in Lenjan, Isfahan, and unsustainable water extraction between the dam and Pole Kaleh, which amounts to 50% of the dam’s output, have further contributed to the wastage of Zayandeh-Rud’s water.
Under the Beheshtabad project, approximately 1.1 billion cubic meters of water is planned to be transferred annually to Iran’s central plateau, despite severe drinking water shortages in Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari Province.
The project, which faced opposition from experts, officials, representatives, and, most importantly, public opinion in Khuzestan and Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari provinces, was approved in the Supreme Water Council due to pressure from Isfahan's officials and representatives. The project includes constructing a tunnel approximately 65 kilometers long with a diameter of six meters and a reservoir dam with a capacity of 1.8 billion cubic meters and a height of 184 meters. The tunnel is to be built at depths exceeding 300 meters beneath the eastern lands of Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari Province, with an estimated annual transfer capacity of 1 billion cubic meters. According to the General Inspection Organization of Iran, the project is estimated to cost over 10 trillion tomans.
This project has not gone unanswered and has faced numerous protests from residents of Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari Province. From April 2014 to April 2021, residents protested six times against transferring water from Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari and Khuzestan provinces to Isfahan and other central provinces. On December 4, 2016, when President Hassan Rouhani presented the budget bill to parliament, he was met with protests from representatives of Khuzestan and Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari provinces. These representatives blocked the podium, preventing him from speaking.
Interestingly, a report from the Iranian Parliament Research Center titled "The Latest Status of the Country's Water Resources in the 2020-2021 Hydrological Year: Current Situation, Consequences, and Solutions", published on April 1, 2021, identified “significant increases in inter-provincial tensions” as one of the major water scarcity issues for central regions in 2021.
In addition to the Beheshtabad project, the government has initiated an 8 trillion toman investment in the Persian Gulf Water Transfer Project. This three-phase project aims to transfer approximately 2 billion cubic meters of water annually to meet central provinces' industrial and agricultural needs. This is one of several water transfer initiatives to central regions.
Discussion and Conclusion
Examining greenhouse cultivation and production leads us to recognize Iran's uneven and imbalanced development and regional inequalities. This situation results from the center-periphery relationship, reflecting the dynamics of capitalism on both national and international scales. In other words, “The spatial structure of the country consists of two sections: the center and the periphery. Within this structure, there are subsystems that, at smaller scales, can also be divided into central and peripheral sections. These centers and peripheries have not developed harmoniously or proportionally; rather, a colonial relationship has been established between the center and the peripheral regions.” [3]
This centralization of power and wealth has been solidified and has grown increasingly dominant since the establishment of the modern state. Economic centralization, directly tied to political centralization, began in earnest during Reza Shah Pahlavi’s rule. The consolidation of political power and the necessity of securing financial resources compelled the government to devote significant efforts to meet its financial needs and seek out new sources of revenue. As a result, Reza Shah’s regime sought to exploit all available economic resources for revenue generation. The authoritarian nature of the regime played a critical role in this effort. Concentrating power in the hands of the Shah and limiting decision-making to him allowed the government to monopolize all economic resources.
Although the roots of such policies and the mindset driving uneven and imbalanced development and regional inequalities can be traced back to the formation of the modern state and the Pahlavi regime in Iran, they have persisted even after the 1979 revolution. In other words, while the political structure changed after the revolution, the cultural, social, economic, and even environmental structures have continued in the same vein as before.
It is evident that greenhouse cultivation is also a part of this governmental economic policy. It is implemented through measures such as low-interest loans, subsidies for greenhouse construction, and extensive and unprecedented support provided to farmers in central regions. Meanwhile, peripheral regions and their farmers are either left to fend for themselves—sacrificing their water and soil to unsustainable and inefficient agricultural practices in an attempt to address unemployment—or are exploited to support the development of central regions.
Notes:
[1]. Greenhouse Cultivation: A Choice or a Strategy, Central Organization of Rural Cooperatives of Iran, Public Relations and International Affairs Management, Spring 2016, p. 7.
[2]. In the agricultural yearbooks of the Ministry of Agriculture Jihad, data for Kerman Province and Southern Kerman Province are presented separately. However, in this study, to provide a unified picture of the cultivation area and production of greenhouse products across Iran’s provinces, the data for Kerman and Southern Kerman were combined and calculated together.
[3]. An Examination of the Causes and Mechanisms of Tehran's Centralization Over the Past Three Decades, Majid Yasouri and Hanieh Asadzadeh, Human Geography Research, Vol. 47, No. 2, Summer 2015, pp. 336–331.
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