Milad Balisini – Radio Zamaneh – November 22, 2024
The drying of Lake Urmia has multiple causes. Authorities often emphasize climate change, drought, lack of rainfall, illegal wells, and cropping patterns but rarely address the impact of dam construction, the Shahid Kalantari Causeway, and embankments on the lake.
The role of dams and the causeway in this crisis has been primarily highlighted by researchers and environmental activists, whereas the Ministry of Energy and other agencies typically deny it.
This report examines the impact of dams on agriculture—the largest water consumer in Iran—and subsequently explores the reasons behind Lake Urmia's drying and potential solutions for its restoration.
Objectives and Primary Reasons for Dam Construction in Iran
One of the main goals and slogans of the 1979 Revolution was "independence and cutting off all forms of dependence." Self-sufficiency was chosen as the strategy to achieve independence, with "self-sufficiency in agriculture being more essential than bread." However, the "arid and semi-arid climate (80%) of the country, with one-third of the global average rainfall, three times the global average evaporation rate, and three times the global average desertification rate" posed a significant obstacle to the expansion of agriculture. In other words, Iran's climate was inherently incompatible with the agricultural goals pursued for self-sufficiency. As a result, dams were constructed to store water for agricultural use.
Although dam construction in Iran began in the late 1940s, there were only 19 dams in the country by the time of the revolution. After the eight-year Iran-Iraq war and during the presidency of Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani, dam construction gained momentum, peaking during Mahmoud Ahmadinejad's presidency. However, "unregulated dam construction" has persisted under all post-revolution governments, to the extent that Iran now ranks 10th in dam construction worldwide. In this area, too, the country has achieved self-sufficiency. According to a list—removed from access—published by the Iranian Water Resources Management Company, 647 small and large dams are currently operational in Iran, with another 683 dams under construction or in the planning stages.
Aside from the dams used for drinking water, most were built for agricultural purposes. On one hand, agriculture in Iran consumes 90% of the 100 billion cubic meters of renewable freshwater produced annually, while its contribution to GDP is only 11.7%. On the other hand, 60% of the 90 billion cubic meters of water consumed annually in Iran is wasted due to traditional farming methods (flood irrigation and lack of mechanized irrigation). This means that over 66 billion cubic meters of freshwater are wasted annually in Iran's agricultural sector. In other words, despite the maximum use of freshwater in agriculture, the sector contributes minimally to Iran's economy.
Dam construction in Iran has not only led to a water crisis but has also burdened the country with inefficient agriculture. Furthermore, it has had a significant cognitive impact on farmers. Dams have created seemingly reliable water resources, encouraging farmers to adopt irrigated farming methods. This has led farmers to believe they can sustain irrigation through well-digging and groundwater extraction. Consequently, in the absence of proper water resource management, the country's aquifers are now facing a deficit of 140 billion cubic meters.
Dams and Embankments
The construction of dams on rivers within the Lake Urmia basin is one of the most significant factors contributing to the lake's drying. Due to the removal of dam-related information from the Iranian Water Resources Management Company’s website, the number of dams built on rivers flowing into Lake Urmia varies across sources, ranging from 74 to even 130.
This volume of dam construction has provided a reliable water source for farmers, leading to an increase in irrigated agriculture. According to research published in the journal Agricultural Water Management, "the area of irrigated lands in the Lake Urmia basin has increased by 437% over recent decades." The study also identifies the rapid expansion of agricultural activities as a major cause of the lake's shrinkage: "The expansion of irrigated lands from 1,265 square kilometers in 1975 to 5,525 square kilometers in 2011 and the resulting desertification in the basin" are among the study's key findings.
Furthermore, a study conducted by several U.S.-based researchers indicates that drought has only reduced precipitation in the Lake Urmia basin by 5%, while human factors, including water development projects and the construction of an 11-kilometer highway over the lake and the 1,709-meter-long Shahid Kalantari Causeway, have pushed the lake into crisis. For the construction of the causeway, material from a nearby mountain was excavated and dumped into the lakebed. The introduction of this material into the lake and the disruption of water flow between the northern and southern sections of the lake are significant contributors to the destruction of the ecosystem and the lake's drying.
There is no doubt that cropping patterns—defined as the cultivation of appropriate crops in suitable locations and seasons to optimize the use of soil and water resources for agricultural production—are not effectively implemented across Iran. For example, rice is cultivated both in Isfahan province, with an average annual rainfall of 106 millimeters (long-term), and in Gilan province, with an average annual rainfall exceeding 700 millimeters (long-term). However, contrasting patterns exist in the agricultural practices of central and peripheral regions of the country. In the central regions, with governmental support and infrastructure, low-water, high-yield crops such as pistachios, saffron, and greenhouse farming are promoted. In peripheral regions, high-water, low-yield crops are more common.
For instance, the primary crops grown in East and West Azerbaijan provinces—which comprise 90% of the Lake Urmia basin—are water-intensive and low-yield crops such as apples and sugar beets.
Pistachios are a low-water, high-yield crop. In 2023, 200,000 tons of pistachios were produced, of which 120,000 tons, worth $900 million to $1 billion, were exported. According to the third volume of the Agricultural Statistics Yearbook, from 2008 to 2023, East and West Azerbaijan provinces accounted for only 0.16% of the country's pistachio orchards (630 hectares of productive orchards) and produced just 0.18% of the national output (506 tons annually).
In saffron production, these provinces in 2023 accounted for 0.28% of the national saffron cultivation area (352 hectares) and 0.75% of the total production.
In contrast, according to the first volume of the 2022 Agricultural Statistics Yearbook, West Azerbaijan ranked first in sugar beet cultivation and production—a water-intensive crop. Due to spring planting conditions, sugar beets in this province require more water. Spring rains are insufficient for sugar beet cultivation, forcing farmers to irrigate more, increasing water use to three times the global average and nine times the global standard.
The nearly threefold difference between the water needed for sugar beet cultivation in West Azerbaijan and the global standard highlights Iran's strategic error in crop location choice. Additionally, the amount of water used to produce one ton of sugar beets in this province exerts ten times the pressure on local water resources compared to other regions (Khabar Online, 2016).
According to the third volume of the 2023 Agricultural Statistics Yearbook, West Azerbaijan ranked first and East Azerbaijan second in apple orchard cultivation. Together, these two provinces accounted for about 45% of the national apple orchard area and 46% of apple production.
The Ministry of Energy reports that producing one kilogram of apples requires 700 liters of water. Considering the average irrigation efficiency of 56% in Iran, water consumption for one kilogram of apples reaches approximately 1,400 liters.
In 2023, West Azerbaijan alone produced 430,000 tons of industrial apples, requiring 602 million cubic meters of water—an amount exceeding half of Lake Urmia’s water volume at the time of reporting.
Conclusion
Dam construction, as one of the development strategies of the 1979 Revolution to achieve self-sufficiency in agriculture, has proven incompatible with Iran's arid and semi-arid climate, which encompasses 80% of the country's geography, and has exacerbated the water crisis. Storing water behind dams and digging agricultural wells has not led to agricultural development or self-sufficiency. Instead, it has squandered the country’s water resources and increased soil erosion. The Lake Urmia basin has also fallen victim to these policies, suffering from the impact of extensive dam construction, which has led to its gradual desiccation.
In addition to dam construction, the crops cultivated in this basin highlight the flawed center-periphery model in Iranian agriculture. While low-water, high-yield crops such as pistachios and saffron are grown in central regions, water-intensive, low-yield crops like apples and sugar beets dominate in peripheral regions such as West and East Azerbaijan. Therefore, revitalizing Lake Urmia will not be possible without addressing this disproportionate model.
Footnotes:
- The Role of "Sugar Beets" in the Water Crisis and the Drying of Lake Urmia, Khabar Online, October 21, 2016.
- Agricultural Statistics Yearbook, Volume I: Field Crops.
- Agricultural Statistics Yearbook, Volume III: Horticultural Products.
Original article in Farsi at Radio Zamaneh.